Daniel Bradley was not a militiaman, he was regular army, and had served as a petty officer during the American Revolution. In August of 1791, after a month of travel from his home in Fairfield, Connecticut, Lieutenant Bradley and a small company of approximately thirty men arrived at Fort Pitt. From there they departed for service in this new campaign against the confederated tribes.
It would be three and one half years until Lieutenant Bradley would return to his Connecticut home. During that time, like a number of other officers, he kept a journal. His writing was colorful and less military in style than most. In 1935, historian Frazer E. Wilson presented Bradley’s record of events in his book titled Journal of Capt. Daniel Bradley, An Epic of the Ohio Frontier.
As was done in Wilson’s book, Bradley’s own words will be used here as a guide through the events that occurred on the frontier from August of 1791 to January of 1795. His original grammar style and spelling are retained and presented in gray italic in order to distinguish his words from the supplemental comments that have been made to help the reader better understand the events he describes.
The Journal
The Year 1791
On July 4, 1776, the United States had declared its independence from England but it had to fight and win a war that lasted seven years before it gained that independence. Now just eight years after that, in 1791, the Country was still a weak republic with an agricultural based economy and a population of only 4,000,000 people of whom 700,000 were slaves. The treasury was empty and for all practical purposes, there was no Army or Navy. The new states quarreled over power and territory and some threatened secession if they did not get their way. George Washington had been President now for two years but there were still those who hoped, while others feared, he would become their king. Far from stable, the country was a tinderbox of contending ideas.
Most Europeans and even many Americans predicted failure for the new nation. More than 10,000 pro British or “Tory” Colonists had moved north of Lake Erie after the Revolution. In 1791, the “Colony of Upper Canada” (Ontario Province) was established. Its Governor, John Simcoe, was encouraging Americans to immigrate, and many did, to towns such as Hamilton and Kingston. The territory west of the Mississippi River remained mostly unexplored and under the control of Spain.
The economy of the eastern planters, in states such as Virginia, depended on land and slaves. Their primary cash crop, tobacco, wore out the fertility of the land so fast that Virginia planters could never have enough. Many owned thousands of acres.
Pennsylvania’s German emigrant farmers made better use of their land. They plowed deep, fertilized with manure from their livestock, and practiced crop rotation. Closely held, their farms did not use slave labor. The Germans along with other immigrants such as the Scotch-Irish people were mostly poor and needed cheap frontier land to get a start.
There can be little dispute that it was primarily the Americans lust for land that put the Indians on the path to war.
August 22nd, 1791
Imbarked at Fort Pitt and drop’d down the river two or three miles.
The river is the Ohio, a name derived from an Indian word meaning great. La Salle, the first white explorer to see the river, called it “La Belle Riviere” (the beautiful river). Most of the early frontier communities grew up along the great river or others that emptied into it.
Interestingly the state of Ohio, named for the river has no jurisdiction over the river, its border ends at the river’s bank.
In 1753, George Washington advised that a fortified blockhouse be located at the fork where the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers join to form the Ohio. In 1754, the French forced the English to abandon the position and there they built Fort Duquesne. In 1758, English troops took the post back and renamed the fort “Pitt”, in honor of the British Secretary of State, William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The town of Pittsburgh was founded in 1764.
Troops for St. Clair’s army were raised in New England, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, Pennsylvania and probably the Carolinas. Many were assembled at Fort Pitt before embarking down the Ohio to Fort Washington where they would be joined my militia from Kentucky.
23rd
proceeded down the river 10 miles.
24th
continued our rout down the river 8 or 10 miles.
25th
passed Bigg Beaver Creek. On this creek appears to be some very good land & is about 31 miles below Fort Pitt. On this creek Gen’l Parson was drowned. We go in shore every night. The land is level all the distance from the river but soon rises in to hills.
Big Beaver Creek (Beaver River) opens into the Ohio between the cities of Beaver and Rochester, Pennsylvania. Revolutionary War Fort McIntosh had been located at this spot.
26th.
This day passed little Beaver Creek about forty miles below Fort Pitt. Fish and turkies is plenty and other game. At night came too a little below yellow Creek. At the mouth of this creek is a block house and a garrison of Militias.
Today the Little Beaver Creek retains enough of its original beauty to still be capable of providing canoeists a sense of what the wilderness once was. The mouth of Little Beaver Creek is located at Glasgow, Pennsylvania.
The mouth of Yellow Creek is located south of Wellsville, Ohio. On this creek at what would become Steubenville, Ohio, was located the Mingo Indian village of Chief Talgayetta, better known as Logan. The village came under attack on April 30, 1774 by a group of whites. Logan’s wife, brother and pregnant sister were among those murdered. After this event the Mingo chief, who had been a good friend to white settlers, became intent on vengeance in “Lord Dunmore’s War”.
27th.
Proceeded down as low as Buffaloe Creek. On this creek is a considerable of a settlement the S. East side the river. They catch here a large fish called the Buffaloe. The land still continues to be hilly as above. I should like it much better if it was more level.
The settlement referred to became Wellsburg, (West) Virginia. The Buffalo is a large suckerfish, a member of the Catostomidae family.
28th
we move this morning for Wheeling, which is 18 miles from Buffaloe. Arrived at Wheeling about sunset—a small settlement on the S. East side the river.
29th.
This day we remain at Wheeling on account of our boat not being ready. Diverted ourselves in the Peach Orchard. Such a quantity of Peaches I think I never saw before in one Orchard not larger than this. Opposite Wheeling is an island of three hundred acres very level and fertile. On it is a very large peach orchard.
What level land there is on the river is exceeding good for Indian Corn. They raise commonly about 50 and 60 bushels an acre but the corn is not of so good a quality as Connecticut corn. Hear Gen’l Butler came up with us.
Wheeling, once called Zane’s Station established by Ebenezer Zane, was the site of Fort Henry.
After the Revolutionary War, the Government paid off many of the veterans by issuing them bounty-land warrants. Officers often supplemented their pay by speculating in land, which may account for why Bradley’s journal sometimes reads like a farmers guide to real estate. A large number of war veterans had been among the first to clear farms on Ohio’s fertile soil.
General Richard Butler was second in command to St. Clair, within 67 days he will lay propped against a tree along the bank of a branch of the upper Wabash River with a tomahawk cleft in his skull.
30th.
this morning we drop’d down about a mile and made a halt to draw provision, cook, & where we remained all day.
31st.
got under way about 10 o’clock and proceeded down the river. The bottom land on the river is very good and timbered mostly with Sugar Maple on both sides the river. We are now about 100 miles from Fort Pitt and about 90 from Muskingum—8 or 10 miles below Wheeling.
12 miles below Wheeling at Graves Creek we came to E. side river for the night. On this creek is a quantity of very good land, which we call bottom land, and a good plantation. Opposite this creek on the West side the river is a very good tract of bottom land and a fine plantation.
Graves Creek (Grave Creek) is located at Moundsville, (West) Virginia. The bottomland plantation on the Ohio side of the river referred to known as Dilles Bottom.
September 1st 1791
this morning imbarked at Graves Creek and proceeded on our journey down the river. Peaches here is very plenty, different kinds. On our passage down this day (which was about 20 miles) we passed Fish creek which enters into the Ohio from East—the land much as usual.
Fish Creek (Fishing Creek) is located at New Martinsville, (West) Virginia.
2’d.
this day we moved very early on our rout down the river—now about 50 miles from Muskingum. There’s no settlements now on either side the river. We here seen nature dressed in all her pride. This day we got about 25 miles of Muskingum—passed several small creeks or rivers.
3rd.
last night a very stormy night. The storm continues this day very severe. We are very wet. I think the land grows better as we go down the river. The land is more level here, than it is higher up the river—more bottom land & hills smaller. We this day passed several islands and creeks. The land is timbered with Sugar Maple, Oaks, Button—wood, Beach, Walnut and is very fertile. We are now about 8 or 10 miles from Muskingum. This night arrived at Muskingum.
4th.
this day continue at Muskingum. We have come up with Cap’l Shaylor. On this river is a very pretty settlement call’d Meriattea, the west side Ohio & North side Muskingum, also a settlement on S. side Muskingum. On the North side Muskingum, about a mile up the river, is a thick settlement called the Stockade built in a square all picqueted in. I here saw Gen’l Tupper & Gen’l Putnam—with the latter drink’d a good glass of wine. There is a settlement opposite Muskingum on the Virginia side river.
Formed in 1786, the Ohio Company of Associates made up mostly of veterans of the Revolution whose main interest was to collect debts, which the Government owed them. In 1788, 22 members under the leadership of Rufus Putnam, landed at the mouth of the Muskingum River and founded the first white settlement north of the Ohio River and the first seat of government in the Northwest Territory. They named it Marietta for the French Queen Marie Antoinette. The stockade referred to is Campus Martius (camp of war). The city eventually annexed Fort Harmar originally built in 1785.
5th.
this morning got under way. Joined by Major Heart & Cap’l Shaylor & his Company and proceed down the river. About 12 miles below Muskingum is a very pretty settlement called Bell Prarie on the west side river. I think as good land as any I have seen.
I have sawe one curiousity that was a grist mill anchored in the middle of the river. That part where the stones are is a rough trough. The middle is the sluce way. That part the out shaft rests on is not covered. It’s anchored with two chains. The wheel when I saw it did not go more than half so fast as a common grist mill. This mill was constructed by one Esq’r Green, is a little below the little Kenawa. This night we continues our march all night.
Bell Prarie is Belpre, Ohio and is across the Ohio River from Parkersburg, (West) Virginia where the Little Kanawha River enters the Ohio. The floating gristmill is believed to have been anchored between the mouth of this river and the Island where in 1796; the wealthy Harman Blennerhassett built an elaborate estate.
Sept. 6th.
this morning halted about an hour.
The men went into the woods and brought a dear on board. We are now about 50 miles from Muskingum and about 40 from the Great Kenawa. The land between this and Muskingum is gen’ly very good and fertile to appearance—a number of very fertile islands.
What Bradley calls the Great Kenawa is the Kanawha River today and enters the Ohio near Point Pleasant, (West) Virginia. In October of 1774, the “Battle of the Kanawha” or “Point Pleasant” took place here during Lord Dunmore’s War. The Revolutionary War Fort Randolph was located here.
We arrived at Galleopolis the 7th about day brake, a small French settlement on the West side the Ohio, a very pleasant sittuation contains 400 or 500 inhabitants. We here made a halt—got breakfast & was under way for Headquarters—which is about 200 miles from Galleopolis—8 o’clock in morning. Nothing material happened this day.
Members of the lower French nobility which included trades people such as lawyers, teachers, and dressmakers were becoming uneasy about events that were building up to the French Revolution. A group of these people were victims of a swindle perpetrated by agents of the Scioto Company. Persuaded to purchase worthless deeds to what they were told was an American paradise but the Scioto Company held no such land to sell. When the Frenchmen arrived in Virginia, the swindle was exposed. The Ohio Company of Associates offered them a village of small log cabins with defensive blockhouses on the north bank of the Ohio River. Thus, the “City of the Gauls” established in 1790. With almost no knowledge of how to survive as frontier farmers, many died and over half would eventually leave for French communities along the Mississippi and at Detroit.
8th.
this morning got down near the mouth of the Siota. No inhabitants here—nothing but howling wilderness. Passed the mouth of the Siota about 10 o’clock The ninth arrived at Limestone about day light which is about 60 or 70 miles from Fourt Washington. Limestone is a small settlement on the Virginia side of the river. The land as described above. I understand the country is settled back from Limestone considerably.
During the 1700s, river pirates and Indians would lure boats to shore around the mouth of the Scioto River robbing, killing, or taking captive the passengers.
The name of the community called Limestone became Maysville, Kentucky; described as being on the Virginia side of the river because Kentucky is not yet a state and still part of Virginia.
9th.
arrived at Headquarters—found the army had moved 25 or 30 miles up the Great Miami. We remained hear till 14th when we marched to join the army. After three days march through the wilderness we arrived at camp the 16 (killed several dear on our way) where we found them at work building a fort on the Great Miami 30 to 35 miles from it’s mouth.
In 1788, a settlement called Losantville. The claim is that the name Losantville meant town (Ville) opposite (anti) the mouth (os) of the Licking (L).
The current location of North Bend, Ohio was first proposed as a site for a fort but then declared not suitable and Losantville selected instead. After completion, General Harmer suggested the name Washington. When General /Governor St. Clair took command in 1790, he changed the name of Losantville to Cincinnati, for the Society of Cincinnati an organization made up of officers who had served in the Continental Army during the Revolution of which St. Clair was a member.
17th, 18th & 19th
continue in camp—nothing remarkable happened the last three days—plenty of venison brought in every day. One thing I will remark where we are now incamped is a prairia of two or three hundred acres where the grass is 8 or 10 feet high and very thick. The land from Fort Washington to and at this place is exceeding good and easy tilled—scarcely any stone at all.
The Army was now camped in the “Interior Plains Region” that stretches across central and western Ohio; part of the great corn belt of the United States that extends west into Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa, some of the most fertile land in the nation.
From the 19 of Sept. to the 1st Oct.
we remain on this ground and have been imployed building a fort which is now closed and we expect in a few days to move on up the river in order to erect another fort—I supose about 30 miles from this place. This is a very pleasant sittuation on the bank of the Great Miami where there is plenty of fish of different kinds. There is also dear, geese, turkies, & pidions very plenty. This day two of my men went out a few miles and brought in a fine buck of which I had one quarter.
Fort Hamilton named for the Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton. It was 150 feet square with four blockhouses and picket walls.
The Miami valley of this time abounded with turkeys, deer, elk, wolves, wildcats, bears, foxes, panthers and even bison of which 30 or 40 might be seen feeding in a meadow.
October 2 & 3
remain on this ground
October 4th.
we got under way and crossed the Miami 24 miles from Fort Washington over the west side and steered a northerly course. This day we marched about three miles and moved in two colloms with the pack horses & baggage in the center
October 5th, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 &11
we continue our march generally in about a northerly course.
October 11th
we are now about 62 miles from Fort Washington and a better tract of land than we have passed through, take it generally, I never saw—and the timber exceeds all I ever saw—white oaks from 4 to 6 feet through and from 50 to 70 or 80 feet high without limbs and hold their bigness better than any I ever saw before. White ash from 2 to 4 feet through & very tall. The timber as far as I have passed is white oak, white ash, beach, maple, red oak, walnut, white wood, red ash, black walnut, etc. The main part of the timber is beech and was up very tall—particular the last twenty miles. The best land I passed I think is from 25 to 40 miles from Fort Washington.
We are now within about 50 miles of the Indian towns with about 2000 men, 10 peices artillery. In the course of this month I expect the matter will be settled for this campaign. I hope then to get into good winter quarters and live a little easier.
Like Bradley, Matthew Hueston served in the Army and closely observed the land he passed through. After his service he began buying land in what would become Butler and Preble counties in Southwestern Ohio. Part of his land, including a 200-acre stand of virgin forest, became Hueston Woods State Park north of Oxford, Ohio.
The Indian towns were located at the headwaters of the Miami-of-the-Lake or Maumee River, where today, Fort Wayne, Indiana is located. Of these, the Miami village called “Kekionga” was the largest and most important.
October 12th.
struck a large prairia in our course—found it impassable. This is 63 miles from Fort Washington. Here we were obliged to file off to the right and go round the prairia. This day marched about 5 miles. The land here is more hilly (interspersed with low prairias) but I think very good wheat land. The timber here is chiefly white oak, black oak, walnut, etc.
Western Ohio had a number of swamps and wet lands, the most famous of which was the “Black Swamp,” a vast area of malarial bogs and stagnant pools with tangled forests that covered much of the northwest section of the state. By 1900, with an extensive system of ditches having been dug, most of these areas had been drained and converted into rich farmland.
The large wet prairie Bradley refers to is “Maple Swamp” which was located about one and a half miles west of the present day village of Castine, at the head of Twin Creek in Darke County, Ohio.
October 13th
this day marched about one mile and incamp’d in order to build a block-house. We have been on our march from the 4th. to the 13th. and every day clear dry weather and not a drop of rain in the time near us. The country which we have passed is well watered. This night a little shower of rain.
October 14th
we continue on this ground. A large party is imploy’d in falling timber for the purpose of building a fortification.
A clearing of between 15 to 20 acres made around a hill on which a square fortification with sides measuring 114 feet was built and named “Jefferson” in honor of the Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson. Each corner had a small blockhouse that along with the rest of the fort were built of rough logs laid horizontally with barracks and storerooms composing the “curtains” (outer walls). An underground magazine was dug with a tunnel 80 feet in length leading from the magazine to the interior of the fort. Another passageway led 90 feet from the southwest blockhouse down the hill to an enclosed spring box.
When selecting a site for building a fort, the army had to consider the need for a supply of water, so forts were located along rivers, creeks, streams or springs but they also needed to be on high dry ground above the flood plain in a definable position.
15, 16, 17, 18th
remain on this ground 200 men constantly inployed building a fort. The army was this day reduced to one day provision but pack horses are now coming in with flour. I suppose four or five days, whether we get more when that’s gone I know not.
Dear & bear are so plenty here it is common for them to run through our camp sometimes knock down tents, men, etc. The last three or four days have been very wet, bad weather.
October 19th.
this morning by a gen’l order we are reduced to half a lb. Flour per day in consequence of failure on the part of the contractor. What will be the consequences time must determine. It is feared the expedition will fail on account of provisions. We have got the fort high enough & now begin to lay the rafters.
11 o’clock—20th
continue still in this place. Nothing remarkable this day.
21, 22nd.
Making preperation to march.
23rd.
this day we had three men execuited by the sentence of a Court Martial—two of them for attempting to desert to the enemy—one for shooting a man—and a gen’l order to march tomorrow morning. It falls to Capt. Shaylor’s and my lot to be stationed at this garrison, called FORT JEFFERSON, with about 120 invalids which we take possession on this day.
The “Invalids” referred to were not only the sick but also any men who simply lacked the physical strength to withstand the rigors of the march.
October 24.
This day the army marched about 6 miles & incamped—I suppose waiting for provision.
On this site, in 1793, Anthony Wayne’s army built Fort Greene Ville. St Clair’s army waited here one week for supplies to arrive.
25th & 26.,
we continue fiting up our barracks. The army still remains incamp’d about 6 miles from this fort and have only about three day’s provision on hand. Whether we get more when that’s gone God only knows. I hope it will not be so bad as my fears for-bode.
27th
nothing remarkable.
28th.
the army marched about 7 miles. They are now about 13 or 14 miles from us. This day Cap. Benum pass’d us with 200 horses & about 27000 wt flour for the army. We took about 1200wt. Of it for the use of the garrison.
The contractors proved to be both corrupt and inefficient, causing frequent delays in the Army’s advance.
29th.
nothing remarkable happened this day. We divert ourselves by hunting round near the garrison. Squirrels is very plenty—other game is scarce at present owing, I suppose, to the army’s lying sometime on this ground. A Serg’t and one man was out a hunting, were fired on by the Indians. The man was killed & scalped the Serg’t was shot through the body but made his escape into camp and died the next day of his wound.
30th & 31st
nothing strange this day.
The Army had marched a few miles past the site of the present day village of Woodington, Ohio and camped on ground rising east of a peat bog. One of their artillery pieces became mired in the bog and had to be abandoned. After 204 years, in 1995, the Coalition for Kentucky Historic Preservation located the cannon and caisson buried under 5 feet of soil.
Novemb’r 1st.
this day, 31st—the First Regiment was detached from the army and came by our garrison. What their object is we cannot tell.
A mass desertion of 60 men had occurred from the Kentucky Militia. St. Clair sent 300 soldiers, his First Regiment, to stop them and to protect the provisions that were on the way leaving the army now reduced to about 1,500 men. St. Clair’s Militia, like Harmar’s, had received little training and desertion was an almost daily occurrence, even though when caught, the deserter could expect brutal punishment.
In the 1700s, the consumption of alcohol was so great that a large percentage of American males were borderline or full alcoholics. Many such men were recruited from frontier taverns to serve in the militias that fought the Indian wars. If not extensively drilled and trained, they proved to be unreliable. There was also a great deal of inequity between them and the officers. They received very low pay, only $2.10 per month, poorer and fewer rations, and were inadequately clothed, some even barefoot. They were punished for drunkenness and gambling even though similar acts were for the most part ignored among the officers.
2nd & 3rd
we still continue fiting up our barracks & putting the garrison in the best position of defense against our Savage enemy.
The army, after the 1st Regiment was detached, moved on rapidly towards the Maumee Towns. This night were within about twenty miles of them.
Novemb’r 4th
the army is now about 100 miles from Fort Washington. This morning at daylight the Indians came on with the war hoop and made the attack upon a party of Militia and drove them into camp. The army was now ready to receive them. The Indians were repulsed at first but soon rallied and returned to the attack and in a few minutes was all around our army—behind every tree, stump and log with their rifles cut our men down at a shocking rate. Our men charged them several times and drove them but they immediately returned to action again and by their well directed fire in the course of three hours they had killed & wounded a great part of our army. The officers being principally cut off and the men disheartened, confusion increasing, ‘twas though advisable to retreat to effect which we were obliged to charge and break through the enemy’s line.
Made our retreat in great disorder. The Indians pursued us about 4 or five miles and then returned to triumph over and massacre their prisoners. Such a horid scene, I believe never was acted before in this Country. Braddock’s defeat & Harmer’s expedition is not to be compared to this.
The shattered remains of the army arrived at Fort Jefferson on the evening of the 4th. after retreating 30 miles with as many wounded at this garrison. After halting about two hours, continued their march to Fort Washington, leaving Capt. Shaylor and myself in this garrison with the sick and wounded to defend the fort which we expect every day to be attacked. We had about 50 officers, killed and wounded—mostly killed—among which is Gen’l Butler, Major Heart & Major Ferguson (2nd. Regt. Capt. Kirkwood, Capt. Phelon, Capt. Newman, Lieut. Warren, Ens’n Cobb & Ens’n Balch) 6 last officers kill’d belonged to our Regiment.
On November 3, the Army made camp on the eastern fork of the upper Wabash River where the town of Fort Recovery, Ohio stands today. The ground covered with snow and ice. The morning of the 4th, the Indians led by the Miami war chief, “Mich-i-kin-i-qua” (the Little Turtle) and “Blue Jacket” of the Shawnee, made their attack. The speed of the attack was so fast and freighting that the soldiers panicked and were rapidly mowed down. The militiamen were of no value from the start, Colonel Oldham was killed while “damning them for cowards” in an attempt to form a rally. It was of no use, while all hell was about to engulf them some of the men were even breaking into the officer’s tents trying to find liquor.
The officers made repeated attempts to rally the troops while the Indians skillfully circled any surge and would strike from the rear. St. Clair himself had two or three horses shot from under him and eight bullets ripped his clothing. Colonel Darke led a heroic charge through the Indian line toward the road that caused a breach and allowed what remained of the Army to escape. Retreat soon turned into a stampede for survival. The Indians actually only pursued them for about four miles and then returned to the scene of the carnage to claim the rich booty of horses, axes, powder, guns, blankets, clothing and tents.
Bradley himself was at Fort Jefferson, not at the battle so his account is second hand. Eighteen-year-old Benjamin Van Cleve, employed as a pack horseman, was there and later recalled that he had just secured his luggage on his horse when he heard firing. The horse was shot down and having obtained a gun from a wounded man he began firing until the retreat commenced. The ground was soon “literally covered with dead and dying men and the commander gave orders to take the way.” He had run about two miles when he came upon a boy who had fallen from a horse and was begging for assistance, he pulled the boy along another two miles until both were exhausted. Van Cleve eventually was able to throw the boy up behind two men on a horse.
His legs began to cramp and he could hardly walk, “till I got within a hundred yards of the rear, where the Indians were tomahawking the old and wounded.” I again began a trot, and recollect that when a bend in the road offered, and I got before a half dozen persons, I thought it would occupy some time for the enemy to massacre them before my turn would come. By the time I had got to (the) Stillwater, about eleven miles, I had gained the center of the flying troops, and, like them, came to a walk. I fell in with Lieutenant Shaumberg, who I think was the only officer of artillery that got away unhurt, with Corporal Mott and a woman who was called “Redheaded Nance”. The latter two were crying. Mott was lamenting the loss of his wife, and Nance that of an infant child. Shaumberg was nearly exhausted and hung on Mott’s arm. I carried his fusee and accouterments and led Nance; and in this sociable way we arrived at Fort Jefferson a little after sunset.”
This was the greatest single battle victory for Native Warriors in American history and the worst battle defeat of an American army until the Civil War. The Indians killed 632 soldiers, 264 more were wounded, 230 civilian camp followers died, including 30 women, 3 six pound brass cannon were lost, 3 three pound and 2 iron cannon, 2 traveling forges, 4 ox teams, 2 baggage wagons, 316 pack horses with harness, 39 artillery horses, an undetermined number of dragoon and private horses. The confederated Indians losses were estimated at 40 to 60 warriors.
To put the magnitude of the loss in perspective, consider that during the entire American Revolution, which lasted for eight years, the total of all combined American battle deaths had been 4,435. The total American battle deaths in the Spanish American War, a hundred years later, were 385 and Custer’s defeat on the Little Bighorn River, in 1876, resulted in 264 soldiers killed.
Theodore Roosevelt, wrote in, “The Winning Of The West”, “that President Washington upon hearing the news, broke forth in a fit of volcanic fury, reciting how he had wished St. Clair success and bid above all things to beware surprise.” The defeat led to the first Congressional Hearing ever held by Congress.
After St. Clair’s loss, there was much uneasiness in the Country. In the West, it was Congress and Washington’s Administration held responsible for the disaster. There was fear that the Six Nations of the Iroquois might soon join the confederated western Indians. The people in the East did not favor spending more money on Indian campaigns while those in the West regarded the Federal Government as aristocratic and only interested in the commercial interests of Easterners.
Bradley compares St. Clair’s defeat to that of English General Braddock’s which had occurred at the beginning of the French and Indian War.
General Edward Braddock considered one of the most outstanding soldiers in the Empire when Britain sent him to Virginia to mount a campaign against the French. He left Alexandria on June 25, 1755 to capture Fort Duquesne.
Captain Daniel Hyacinthe Marie de Beaujean led a confederation of Indians, French regulars, and Canadians that ambushed Braddock ten miles south of Fort Duquesne. Beaujean was killed but his army destroyed the British. Only because Colonel George Washington’s Colonial troops broke ranks and fought in the style of the Indians was total annihilation prevented. Braddock’s defeat was one of the worst military disasters in history; however, the bison path his army expanded into a war road did serve as a primary route of migration to the west.
Novemb’r 5th, 6th, 7th, & 8th
the men that were wounded and scattered in the woods are daily coming in, one in particular came in scalped, a tomehawk stuck in his head in two places.
A few days after the action we had a supply of provisions come on—enough to last till 1st Jan’y, 1792. From the time of the action till Christmas nothing material happened, except the death of Col’o. Gibson 12th Decem’r & Capt. Bayley and a number of soldiers died of their wounds.
24th of Decem’r
only 6 days provision on hand and 68 miles from any resource. We began to think hard of evacuating this garrison, but fortunately, with a day or two came on a large supply of provision, also reinforcement to the garrison. From this time till the last of Jan’y, or the 1st Febr—nothing material happened.
In The Year 1792
Last Jan’y or Feb’r 1st Gen’l Wilkinson came on with about one hundred & fifty Melitia & one hundred and fifty Federal troops. Gen’l Wilkinson with the Melitia horse went on to the Field of Action, buried a number of our dead men, brought of some carriages, a quantity of iron, &, &.
In January, when Wilkinson rode to the battle scene to bury the dead, snow covered the ground. They began finding bodies four miles from the battlefield in small mounds of snow. The bodies were blackened, scalped, stripped and unidentifiable because of the effect of the elements, wolves and other animals. The ground was frozen and only a shallow trench could be dug into which the bodies found were buried.
During the Revolution, James Wilkinson had been involved with the “Conway Cabal”, a group of officers that conspired to have George Washington replaced as commander. When Wilkinson came to Kentucky in 1784, he spread rumors and lies about George Rogers Clark in an attempt to get his position as military leader in the west. In 1787, he became a paid spy for Spain, his code name, unbelievably, was “Agent 13.” He swore to Spain that he would work for the secession of the Kentucky territory. Wilkinson was popular with the Kentucky Militia and early in 1795, when Wayne was ill, he tried to stir up discontent among the officers in yet another scheme to promote himself.
The 11th of Febuary
Capt. Shaylor, myself, Lt. Bissel, Mr. Kibby, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Mason, our Com’d Capt. Shaylor’s son and one soldier went about half a mile from the fort to look timber & hunt squirrels. We were falling a tree, were fired on by a party of Indians before we discovered them. Immediately on their firing they gave the war hoop and rushed upon us. I gave them one fire & found our party began to scatter & run, I with the rest. I found I could not run much the snow being deep. I took off to the left. The bushes being thick I soon lost sight of them, concealed myself as well as I could till dark and about ten o’clock found the way in to the garrison very much beyond my expectation. When I came in I found Mr. Mason & Capt. Shaylor’s son had been killed and scalped. A party had been out & brought them in to the garrison. The 12 enter’d them with the honors of war.
Capt. Shaylor was wounded but got to the fort. Mr. Kibby also got in. Lieut. Bissel, Mr. Fowler & the soldier that was with us are yet missing but we are in hopes they have escaped and gone to Fort Hambleton.
Nothing material happened from this till about 24th, Feb’y when a command arrived for the relief of the garrison when we lernd Mr. Bissell & the others that went with him were safe arrived at Fort Hambleton. We were relieved and arrived at Fort Washington about 1st, March, when Capt. Shaylor was arrested and tried by a gen’l Court Martial for leaving the garrison of Fort Jeffersoon on the 11th, Feb’r as above.
The 14th, March we march’d with a detachment of about two hundred men in order to build a garrison between Forts Hambleton & Jefferson. Arrived on the designed spot for the garrison the 17th, at sunset about forty seven miles from Fort Washington. The 18th, we began our work & on 23rd, our work was closed with picquets—about 120 feet square with four bastions.
Fort St. Clair was the fourth of sixteen fortifications built during the Northwest Territory Indian campaigns of the 1790s. It was located just west of the present day city of Eaton, Ohio.
The 24th
Colo. Wilkinson, who commanded the party, returned with the detachment to Fort Washington except one hundred men under the command of Capt. Cushing remained to complete & command the garrison. From this time to 1st. June nothing very material has happened at this garrison. We have been hard at work clearing round the fort, building, barracks, stores etc. Have now got our barracks, stores, etc. covered and the men in them.
Some time in April Capt. Mumford of the 1st U.S. Regt., who came on command at Fort Jefferson, the time I was relieved, was killed with his waiter about three hundred yrds, from the fort about sunrise in the morning—both scalped. The Indians lay concealed behind a hill & fired on them just as they rose the hill. They fired into the garrison, wound one man as he was running in to the gate. Two days after Capt. Mumford was killed I arrived at Fort Jefferson with a command of forty men and sixty pack horses. The next day returned to Fort St. Clair without discovering any Indians.
About the middle of May 1 received a letter from the Secretary of War informing me of my promotion from 4th Novem’r 91—vice, Capt. Phelon, Kill’d.
On June 1, 1792, Kentucky is admitted to the Union as the fifteenth state.
In June, Anthony Wayne sent Colonel John Hardin and Major Alexander Truman as envoys of peace to the Shawnee. They reached a spot near today’s village of Hardin (located on state Route 47 west of Sidney, Ohio) where they were met and killed. A county in Ohio also bears his name.
July 6th
St. Clair—Nothing material has happened at this garrison since 1 June.
A party of men, one Sergt. & twelve, were cut off the 24th, June near Fort Jefferson while they were mowing & stacking hay, by a body of about fifty Indians. The bodies of four were found much cut to pieces. The others have not been heard of since.
We have had no trouble from the Indians at this garrison since it was built. Live very peacably, got considerable of a garden. Had lettice & radishes plenty in May, peas 20th., June. Have cucumber most fit to pick. Like to have corn beans, peas, potatoes, mush melon, water melon &c plenty.
About the 12th., July two prisoners came to this post, made their escape from the Indians. One has been a prisoner since Harmer’s campaign. The other was taken 4th., November last. They inform that the Indians took eight prisoners, 24th., June belonging to the mowing party at Jefferson, four of whom they black’d & burnt. The other four they retain prisoners.
They also inform that the Indians have left their old towns on the Maumee & moved fifty miles further on towards the Lake Eri & Detroit & that they live very poor—can scarcely get provision to keep them alive. They likewise inform that the Indians were preparing to move off towards the Mississipi, but were discouraged by the French & British at Detroit who told them to not give up their land but stay and fight for it, and encouraged them by furnishing them with provision etc. Was this nest of British at Detroit broke up (I think we should have very little trouble with the Indians) which ought to been given up to us eight years ago by the Treaty.
The Indian settlements were not permanent but more or less shifting as conditions required
The English still had hopes of recapturing the American Colonies and determined to hold on to the Great Lakes fur trade for their North West Company.
Nothing remarkable has happened at this post since the 24th, June till 29th, September.
We had a Cattle guard, A Sergt., & twelve men dayly went out to bait cattle. On 29th., a little after sunrise they went out with 11 cattle, got about three hundred yards from the fort, were fired upon by a party of Indians, supposed about twenty. They killed two of our men, Williams & Kenman of Connecticut & scalped them both. The remainder of the guard retreated to the garrison. The Indians took off six of the cattle & in three days after the cattle returned to the garrison.
From 29th., September to 19th., October nothing remarkable happened. We have had froasts in this country as late as 20th. May & as early as 20th., September.
On October 13, the cornerstone of the presidential mansion, or what after the War of 1812 came to be known as the “White House” was laid.
Fort St. Clair, 19th., October, 1792. Great talk of a treaty with the Indians. I wish we might make a peace with them, if it might be lasting, but I fear it would not.
Maj. Adair with about 100 mounted Rifle men was returning from Fort Jefferson, incamped within about two hundred yards of Fort St. Clair, was attacked on the morning of the 6th. of Novemb’r by a party of about 100 Indians. The attack was at the dawn of day. The Indians drove the Melitia out of their camp, mounted their horses and rode off. The Melitia followed them about half a mile when the Indians turned upon them and drove them back to the garrison, killed about twenty of thirty pack-horses in sight of the garrison & took off about 160 good horses. Left two of their warriors dead on the ground and six Melitiamen. With the side away from the fort left open to the Indians they soon finished their pillaging and moved off with their plunder and the valuable horses.
Nothing remarkable from this till 21st. Nov’r when Capt. Shaylor came to relieve the garrison, and on the 24th. we arrive at Fort Washington on the Ohio.
In The Year 1793
From this to the 15th. of Jany., 1793, nothing very remarkable has happened. There is now great talks of a gen’l peace with the hostile Indians.
March 27th.—nothing very remarkable has happened since the 15th Jan’y—a great share of fatique and hard duty. We hear the Indians killed a young woman near the mouth of the Great Kenawa and took a boy prisoner last Fryday. Still some talks of peace.
About six Indians attacked a party of pack horsemen about six miles from this place about a month ago—killed one pack horse man and took off eight or ten horses. Were pursued near a hundred miles but could not be overtaken—supposed they belong on the Wabash. One man of my Company either killed or taken.
May 12th., ’93. Nothing very remarkable since 27th., March.
General Wayne arrived here about the 7th., May with the main army consisting of about twelve hundred men, many of them very raw and undisciplined—an army much too small for an expedition in this country. A treaty is to be held at Sandusky, I suppose in June. If it does not succeed it is expected we shall have an expedition this campaign. If we do with the army as weak as it is now I shall fear the consequences—will be another defeat. Our army, I believe is not more than half completed to the establishment. The Indians have done considerable mischief on the frontiers of Kentucky within two or three months—killed a number of the inhabitants, stole many horses & still have their war parties out, not withstanding they have agreed to hold a treaty in June.
The renegade, Simon Girty acted as an interpreter at the Sandusky treaty talks and accused of unfaithfulness in his duties.
Anthony Wayne was now 48 years old, he had been a failure as a planter, unsuccessful in winning a seat in Congress and heavily in debt. During the Revolution, he had commanded Fort Ticonderoga until 1777, been with Washington at the Battle of Brandywine, led the attack at Germantown, wintered with his troops and captured supplies for the army at Valley Forge. He had taken part in the battle of Monmouth, New Jersey and saved Lafayette in Virginia in 1780. He aided in the siege of Yorktown, and drove the British from Savannah, Georgia. It was in Georgia that he had gained experience in fighting Indians. He was schooled by the German General Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben in the use of the bayonet charge, which he employed in his most brilliant victory on July 15, 1779, when he successfully captured Stony Point, a British fortification on the Hudson River.
He is believed to have been given the nickname “Mad”, for his reckless courage and manner of attack, but some said it was a name given by one of his chief spies “Jemy the Rover” because of his hot temper and strict disciplinary actions. Regardless, he was a leader who had the respect of those he commanded. After much observation, the Indians were also impressed and referred to him as “The Chief Who Never Sleeps.”
Fort Washington, 12th., May, 1793. We are now cuting a road to Fort Hamilton forty feet wide, all clear, and I suppose shall go on with it to Fort Jefferson—which will be a most capital thing when completed. On the 18th. of May I marched to Fort Hamilton with my company, where I have been stationed from the 18th of May to 3rd., September. Have been imployed in cutting hay and escorting provision, forage, &c to Fort Jefferson till about 1st. of August when the Commander in Chief received orders to stop all transportation of provisions and forrage till the effect of the treaty is known which is holding at Lake Eri.
Packhorses, wagons, cannon and caissons could not travel through the wilderness without road cutters first clearing the way and a campaign could not have been sustained without a line of supplies.
Wild animals such as bison, made paths through the vegetation as they moved from salt licks, water, and grazing areas. Some paths saw use for hundreds of years and were worn down several feet. Native Americans used these paths as part of their trail system. Early explorers and the military cut new roads or “traces” which incorporated the Indian and animal trails whenever possible. These traces were improved to make better roads for horses and wagons.
In the 20th Century, the automobile created a need for the nation to develop a system of paved highways, many of which closely followed the old wagon roads that had once been traces, trails and animal paths.
On today’s highways, you could travel from Cincinnati to Fort Wayne, Indiana in three or four hours. It is not likely you would even make much note of the number of rivers and creeks crossed and swamps, bogs and underbrush are no longer a hindrance.
The Ohio of today has little in common with the wilderness of the 1790s when the region was 95% virgin hardwood forest. An 18th Century army moved on foot with horses pulling cannon and wagons of equipment and supplies. Trees had to be cut, brush cleared, bridges and fortifications built. Sources of drinking water had to be secured, the livestock had to be protected and provided with feed.
The fortifications were built along the military road so that a train of packhorses could travel the distance from one to another within a day, thus securing the line of supply from an enemy skilled in the art of hit and run ambush warfare.
On July 22, Alexander Mackenzie, of the British North West Company, would become the first white man in North America to reach the Pacific Ocean over land.
September 3rd., It is not yet known whether we shall have an expedition this fall or not. If we doo it will be a late one, and I fear will be atended with bad consequences, on account of there being no forrage for pack horses except what must be carried on horses. The season being too late for grass one month, I suppose, will determine whether we have an expedition on or not.
The last of August we made a fish dam about a mile above the garrison across the Miami with a funnel & basket like for the fish to run in. On the night of the 2nd. Of September we caught about 800 weight of different kinds of fish. The basket not being finished the first night it was completed on the 2’d of September, and on the night of the 3’d we caught 1750 weight of Buffelow, Pearch, Catfish, Ells, &c. We have more fish than the whole garrison can make use of.
This country affords a variety of wild fruit, such as Papaws which are as large as a common apple and very lusious, has the taste of a pine apple—Mandrakes, May Apples, which has something of taste of the Papaw. A great plenty of large plums, grows near this Garrison about Twice as big as damsons—are ripe about the 1st. of Sept., and are excellent good. A plenty of small grapes—something like our winter grapes, Wild Cherries, Haws, &c, &c, &c.
This Place subjects us to the Ague & fever. I had a spell of it the fore part of August but have got the better of it, am now getting very hearty again. The 3rd of September we caught 2500 weight of Fish and about as many on the 4th., which makes 5000 weight in two nights.
The Papaw or Paw Paw is a tree of the custard-apple family that produces a fruit that can look a bit like a small banana. When ripe it is soft and sweet but the quality is variable from tree to tree and has never become popular. Mandrakes and May Apples are both names used for the same plant (Podophyllum peltatum), it belongs to the barberry family and produces a fruit that looks somewhat like a small lemon and is sweet and edible. Haws are the fruit of the Hawthorn tree.
“Ague” and “swamp fever” were names for malaria, a disease carried from one person to another by the bite of the Anopheles mosquito. The disease was so common in western Ohio before the draining of the swamplands that settlement in some regions was only made possible by the use of quinine. The anti-malarial medicine became so important that the people of Lima, Ohio named their town in honor of Lima, Peru from where their quinine was obtained.
Nothing remarkable since 4th., Sept.
About the 7th. of October Gen’l Wayne marched from the Ohio, passed F. Hamilton about the 10th on his way to the Indian Country. I expect by the middle of Nov. the matter will be determined. Whether we can beat the Indians, or not,--I leave it to fate I pray we may be successful.
October 15th the army is now advanced of Fort Jefferson. On the 17th. I expect to march to join them.
October 22nd.—Camp 6 miles from Fort Jefferson. The army halts at this place on account of provision. The Contractor is not able to supply us any farther advanced.
On the 17th., about sunrise in the morning Lieut. Lowrey with a party of about ninety men, was attacked six miles advanced of F. St. Clair by a party of Indians, supposed about forty. They defeated Lt. Lowrey’s party, killed him and Ens’n Boyd and about twelve or thirteen men, took about seventy or eighty fine waggon horses, plundered the waggons of every thing they could carry off. Colo. Adair with one hundred militia followed them two or three days, but could not overtake them. The loss of these horses will be a great detriment to the army moving. It is uncertain whether the army moves any farther this fall, or not. They can not move except the Q.M. Department assists theContractor in bringing out provisions which I suppose, is in contemplation.
The place where Lieutenant Lowery was attack was about 7 miles north of the city of Eaton, Ohio just west of state route 127, at what became known as “Lowery’s Spring”. A church and cemetery were built on or near the site some years later.
ordered to build hutts for the winter. We are huted in an oblong square about six hundred yards long & three broad. Inclosed with picketts Sometime the fore part of Nov’r. it was determined the army would move no farther this season. We were fifty yards without the hutts all round. Two hundred and fifty yards without the picketts is nine block-houses-three in front, three in rear, and one on each flank, where are guards are kept.
Wayne’s “American Legion” was divided into four sub legions each with a commander who was headquartered in one of the corner blockhouses and responsible for construction of one fourth of the outer walls.
Within the fort were numerous log huts, 15 foot square, which housed 6 men. A magazine, laboratory for making gun powder, a hospital, artificers shops, bake ovens, sutler’s storerooms, an artillery park, drill ground and public market were all enclosed within picket walls that are believed to have required in excess of 5,000 trees of from 9 to 12 inches in diameter and approximately 20 foot in length. These pickets were placed in a 3 to 4 foot deep trench. The Fort is estimated to have covered the equivalent of 12 city blocks or about 50 acres of land.
Advance guard blockhouses were built “without” (meaning outside of the fort) to the north and south. At first, Wayne simply referred to the place as “camp along the south-west branch of the Miami” but when finished, he named it Greene Ville to honor his friend General Nathaniel Greene. This was the Army’s headquarters where they spent the winter training and drilling.
Greene Ville was a formidable fortification. It is believed to have been the largest wood picket fort ever built. For comparison, Fort Meigs, the War of 1812 fortification which is located near Perrysburg, Ohio is the largest restored log walled fortification in North America; it covers almost ten acres of land. Fort Greene Ville covered five times as much area as Fort Meigs.
The Indians were brave fighters but they would seldom mount an attack in which the odds were not in their favor. To make an assault on such a well-fortified position would have been foolish, resulting in the loss of far too many warriors.
On Christmas day, a detachment from Greene Ville camped at the site where St. Clair’s army was defeated. Bones of the victims that still remained were recovered and removed and a fort was built. When the outpost was completed, it was named “Recovery”. In 1912, Congress authorized the building of a large monument on the site where the soldiers and camp followers were buried.
In Europe, France once again declared war on Great Britain.
The Year 1794
About the middle of Jan’y three Indians and one white man came in to our camp with a flagg from the Shawenees, Delewares, &c with proposals for peace. General Wayne has sent them back with an answer. If they wish for peace they are to meet us at Fort Recovery, on Gen’l St. Clair battleground, about the middle of Feb’y and bring our prisoners with them which they have with them. It is generally believed they will meet us, and that a peace will take place.
Green Ville, 27th., Jan’y, 1794. Nothing very material from 27th., Jany The time is past that the Indians agreed to meet us in. We now begin to think they are not for peace. We have had a moderate winter till now the weather is very cold. What is to be done in the Spring time must determine.
On the 22’d of Febuary a duel was fought between Lt. Bradshaw & Lt. Huston. Both were shot through their bodys’. Mr. Bradshaw lived about fifteen or eighteen hours—Mr. Huston about thirty-six. Feb’r 24th. 1794. Green Ville.
Dueling was officially discouraged, but Wayne is said to have preferred it to the lengthy court martial process as a means of settling disputes between junior officers. After the July 14, 1804 duel between Vice President Aaron Burr and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, in which Hamilton had been killed, the public was so outraged that the practice fell from favor.
In April, Lieutenant Governor John Simcoe of Upper Canada ordered what was probably a direct violation of treaty agreements, the rebuilding of Fort Miami on the north bank of the “Miami-of-the-Lakes” (Maumee River).
G Ville
June 3rd., 1794
We still remain at this place. Nothing very material has transpired this four months past. We are getting out provision as fast as possible, but whether we shall be able to go farther a head or not is uncertain, as, our army is decreasing every day and no measures taken to fill it up. I think we shall be in a disagreeable situation in a few months, if something is not done to fill up the army we shall not be able to go forward, nor stay where we are.
Wayne may not have liked dealing with court marshals but never the less he conducted 190 of them. Of those, 19 were given the death penalty, including Edward O’Brien and Matthew Gill who on this date were sentenced and ordered shot to death for sleeping at their posts. Lesser offenses received only somewhat lesser penalties, including branding and flogging. An ordered flogging of 100 lashes was common, a punishment severe enough that it required the attendance of a physician to insure that the offender was not killed. One soldier had scars from 700 lashes he had received for various offenses, most of which involved drunkenness. Sentences were carried out on the Sabbath.
Today, a commander who would order such cruel penalties might very well be called “mad” but at the time it was standard military justice, administered under the “Rules and Articles of War” that had been established in 1776 by the Continental Congress. It insured that, when ordered to face a ferocious enemy, the men would have the discipline to hold their ground.
On the 13th. of May the Indians attacked the front guard of an escort between Fort Washington and Hamilton, killed seven or eight men. The remainder with a party of horsemen retreated back. The Indians fell to plundering the horsemen. About twelve men were met by Mr. Lee & Tunner and encouraged to turn back to the charge, which they did, and drove the Indians off, but they had previously stripped forty horses and took them off leaving one Indian dead on the ground. We have this day news of a large party of Indians being out, and, it is most probbable they will do some mischief before they return. What it will God only knows. I think they have it in their power to do a great deal of muschief.
June 3rd., 1794, Green Ville
Green Ville, 14th., July, 1794. Nothing very material has happened from 3d of June except an attack’d on an escort at Fort Recovery which happened on the 30th of June. Major MacMahan with about 75 Riflemen & fifty Dragoons had marched to Fort Recovery with about 300 horses loaded with flour. The next day the Pack horses were attacked about half a mile from the garrison. Major Macmahan moved out to the attack’d & fell the first fire. Capt. Hartshorn from Connecticut, Lt. Craig from Virginia Cornet Torrey from Boston fell in the action, and about twenty men. About ten or twelve Indians were found dead on the ground. The Indians took and killed most of the horses and cleared out on the 1st., of July
The escort, as Bradley states, was attacked on June 30th. The surviving soldiers were able to get inside the fort. On July 1, the Indians, uncharacteristically, assailed the fort, which was under the command of Captain Alexander Gibson, and paid the price. They lost many warriors and were forced to withdraw. The Americans had lost twenty-two men and three hundred packhorses but this battle would prove to be a turning point. At the treaty negotiations that took place in 1795, the Indians still spoke of the losses they had suffered this day.
It is now expected the army will move in a short time towards the Indian Towns. There is orders for two thousand Militia from Kentucky to join. Whether they will be able to raise that number is uncertain. If they do, or near it, I think we shall go safe but if they do not and we move, I fear the consequences. However, time only will determine our fate. If we fail the blood will rest at the doors of Congress.
On July 26, the advanced division of mounted Kentuckians arrived at Greene Ville and the Army immediately prepared to move on the 28th. Upon reaching Fort Recovery, Wayne turned northeast in order to deceive Indian spies before finally taking a central course, arriving at the junction of the Auglaize and Maumee Rivers on August 8th.
While the Army was preparing for battle with the Indians in the West, another event was taking place in the East that would test the power of the Federal Government.
Whiskey is an alcoholic beverage distilled from grains and malt. America’s 18th Century frontier farmers found it more profitable to turn their excess crops of corn and rye into whiskey than to ship the bulky grain to market.
The Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, a Federalist leader, proposed to expand the power of the Federal Government by directly taxing all whiskey producers. The tax would have to be paid in cash, a commodity few frontier farmers had much of. The settlers west of the Allegheny Mountains charged the Federal Government with taxation without representation and threatened secession on much the same principles as had led to the American Revolution. Rumors spread that the rebels were negotiating with representatives of England and Spain.
That summer with the regular army fighting Indians in the Ohio Country, President Washington had to send eastern militia troops into Western Pennsylvania to put down the revolt. When the militia converged on Pittsburgh, most of the rebel leaders fled for Spanish, Louisiana. Although this rebellion was resolved, the struggle between Federalist and Jeffersonian based political philosophies would continue building until it climaxed into the Civil War sixty-seven years later.
August 13th., 1794—Grand Glaize—The army marched 28th. July from Green Ville and arrived at the Oglaise Towns on the 8th. of August, which is the center of the Indian Towns, without any opposition. The towns were all evacuated. We found plenty of corn & vegetables of all kinds. On the 12th a party of spies went down the Tauway River to Rush De Beau, about 30 miles from this place & 16 from Lake Eri. They caut two prisoners & on their way back they fell in with a party of Indians about 20.
Four of our spies attacked them in their tent, killed three or four. Two of our spies was wounded. They brought in two prisoners who report that two hundred British were at the Rapids of the Miami, or Rush De Beau, and about 600 Indians were collected at or near that place. I expect the army will move tomorrow for Rush De Beau. What will be the consequences we leave to time. We now ly on a point at the confluence of the Oglaise and Maumee rivers—very pleasant sittuation.
“Grand Glaize” is now the location of Defiance, Ohio. The “Tauway”, “Taway”, “Tawa”, “Miami-of-the-Lakes” and “Miami” were all names that were used for parts or all of the Maumee River. The “Glaize” or “Oglaise” is the Auglaize River.
Along these rivers were fields of corn and vegetables. Wayne described the Indian Villages as very extensive with cultivated fields, which lined the margins of the rivers like one continuous village for many miles. Fields larger than he had ever seen in any part of America. The army destroyed 10,000 to 15,000 barrels of “Indian Corn” alone.
The army marched from the last mentioned place on the 15th. of August down the Tawa River. On the 18th. we halted, built a fortification and deposited all our baggage which is forty miles from Fort Defiance on the confluence of the Oglaise & Maume rivers. On the 29th we moved down towards Rush De Beau., or the British garrison. After marching about 6 or 7 miles the front of the army were suddenly attacked by the Indians & about 10 o’clock, A.M. the spies and front guard gave way & retreated till supported by the main body. So soon as the line was formed a charge was made, the enemy immediately gave way & , after keeping up a fire about one mile on the retreat they took their flight & disappeared, left about 40 killed. We had about thirty killed & one hundred wounded. After this action, which lasted about forty minutes, the army march’d & incamped in sight of the British garrison which is at the foot of the Rapids of the Miami of the Lakes where we lay till 23.
The fortification that the Army built for their baggage was called, appropriately, Fort Deposit. Zebulon Pike was placed in command.
The confederated tribes under the direction of the Shawnee war chief “Weyapiersenwah”, known as Blue Jacket had taken a position on the right bank of the Miami-of-the-Lake in a dense forest filled with an entanglement of trees that had been uprooted by a powerful tornado, the area was known by its descriptive name of “Fallen Timbers”.
General Wayne, who was suffering severe pain in a leg that remained constantly swollen from an old Revolutionary War wound, positioned his cavalry between the river and the forest as his right wing. The central assault carried out by two lines of the Legion’s infantry. On the left, Major General Charles Scott, a veteran of the Revolution, commanded the Kentucky mounted militia.
The Indians attacked the Army’s front line and attempted to turn it. Wayne ordered a bayonet charge and when the Indians retreated, their backs fired upon. The second line supported the first, while the militia turned the Indian’s right and the cavalry their left. This all happened so quickly that only about 900 of Wayne’s 2,643 troops were needed.
The Indians were driven to the British Fort Miami. When they reached the gates, the English would not permit them to enter. The commander, Major William Campbell, knew he could not openly support the Indians without risking another war between Britain and the United States. Wayne held the position until the 23rd in an attempt to provoke the British into battle.
Destroyed all the corn & villages in the vicinity of that place and marched back to Fort Defiance where we arrived on the 28th, where we remained till 14th September fortifying & putting that garrison in a state of defense. Maj’r Hunt is left to command it.
On the 14th of Septemb’r the army took up the line of march up the Miami River towards the Maumee Villages, where we arrived on the 17th (without any opposition) which is 48 miles from Defiance.
We are now erecting a Fort on the Maumee or Miami Villages, a very pleasant sittuation at the confluence of the St. Mary’s & St. Joseph’s Rivers, which form the Miami of the Lakes. Here are fine meadows all cleared fit for mowing, good land, well timbered with white oak, hickory, and the river navagable to Lake Eri, which is about one hundred and fifteen miles. Navigation to New York except a few short carrying places, the whole about 20 miles. September 30th., 1794.
Wayne completed Fort Defiance, advanced to the forks of the river that had been St. Clair’s original objective, built another fort, and then returned to Greene Ville.
October 16th., 1794—Nothing very remarkable has happened since 30th., Septemb’r except the death of Mr. Eliot, our contractor, who was killed about the 6th. instant between Forts Washington & Hamilton as he was on his way out to the army with provisions. His death was much lamented.
Are still at this place working at the garrison. Have got it prety forward and expect in a short time to leave this for winter quarters. About three days ago a Frenchman came into our Camp with three prisoners he had purchased from the Indians in order to redeem his brother who was taken on the 20th of August fighting with the Indians against us. The prisoner is set at liberty and is a going with his brother to the Indians. What effect this will have is unsertain. I hope it will have a good one as the Frenchman who came out says the Indians mostly are for peace & he expects they will come in soon.
The difficulty of transporting provision two hundred miles into this Country has caused the army to be on half allowance of flour from 16th. of Aug’st to the 20th. of Sept. We now draw half allowance of flour only, but draw half a lb. Beef in lieu thereof. Nothing very material has happened since 16th. We have been imployed busily in building the garrison at this place. Yesterday Col’o Hamtramack with five Companies of Infantry & one of Artillery took possession of garrison & called it Fort Wayne. We expect to march the 25th., or 26th, instant, but where we know not, We hear by express of four Indians, or Cannadians, arriving at Green Ville with a flagg. What their business is we know not. Maumee Villages, 23, October 1794.
Contractors supplied the Army with kegs of sugar, coffee, chocolate, flour, salt, and whiskey. In addition, the officers planted gardens. The Army maintained livestock, which was supplemented with wild game animals and foraged food including fruits such as paw paws, plums and nuts
25th,--Marched from Fort Wayne by way of Fort Adams to Gerties Town & from there to Greenville where we arrived the 2nd. Of Novemb’r & on the 27th. I obtained a furlough. 29th. arrived at Fort Washington, from that proceeded to Lexington. 13th. December left Lexington. Arrived at Philadelphia 13th. Jan’y., 1795 & at Fairfild 20th., Jany.
Daniel Bradley traveled thousands of miles, much of it on foot. He helped cut wilderness roads, built and lived for years in rough log fortifications, endured cold winters, hot, humid summers, and insects. He survived illness, times of limited food supply, and horrific fighting. At times, he must have wondered if he would ever see Connecticut again.
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